What is the authenticity of the Hadith: "When a woman reaches puberty, nothing of her should be visible except her face and her palms," and how should a woman's attire be based on this? What is the ruling if strict veiling would cause her harm in her society?

The aforementioned hadith is weak, and it is not permissible to use it as evidence due to a break in its chain of narration and the presence of weak and unreliable narrators. Even if its authenticity were to be assumed, it would be interpreted as having occurred before the فرض (imposition) of hijab. The correct view is that a woman must cover her entire body from non-mahram men. A Muslim woman should be patient and steadfast in her religion and obedience to her Lord, and she should endure any harm that may befall her in this path, following the example of the righteous predecessors. This aligns with the Prophet's (peace be upon him) description of the era of patience in religion as "holding onto a burning ember."