Does a divorce issued by a person who uttered an oath of divorce after a heated argument with his wife that escalated to him breaking her phone, then proceeded to divorce her while feeling relatively calm, take effect?

Anger does not prevent a divorce from occurring as long as the person is aware of what he is saying and is not overcome by his intellect. If this divorce does not complete the three (divorces), then you may take your wife back before the expiry of her 'iddah (waiting period). One must be wary of anger, for it is the key to evil.