How did the Arabs treat the mawali from the Islamic era to the Abbasid era, and what is the Islamic conception of the "other," with Sharia evidence?

To understand how Arabs (Muslims) interacted with others, one should refer to reliable historical sources and biographies. The term "Mawla" includes those close by lineage, religion, friendship, alliance, or those who were formerly enslaved, and it may also refer to non-Arabs. Islam honored humanity regardless of color or race, affirming the verse: "And We have certainly honored the children of Adam" (Al-Isra: 70). It commanded justice and benevolence towards everyone, affirming His saying: "And let not the hatred of a people prevent you from being just. Be just; that is nearer to righteousness" (Al-Ma'idah: 8). And it made piety the criterion for distinction, affirming His saying: "Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you" (Al-Hujurat: 13). This is what every Muslim should implement.